1  Qualitative designs

In this chapter, we compare quantitative and qualitative research and then practise the ideas about theory from this week’s lecture. These activities will help you make the shift from thinking in quantitative terms to thinking in qualitative terms.

Quantitative and qualitative research are two different ways of approaching research, and the data they produce is very different. Neither approach is inherently ‘better’ than the other, and the two approaches can also work well together.

Complete the activities below to practise the key differences between the two approaches (Activities 1 and 2) and the basics of theoretical perspectives (Activity 3).

1.1 Activity 1: Differences between qualitative and quantitative designs

Quantitative research generally… Qualitative research generally…
uses numbers as data uses meaning as data, usually expressed in words (e.g. interview transcripts), and sometimes images
is hypothesis-driven and deductive (‘top-down’): it starts with a theory, narrows it into hypotheses and tests them is exploratory, focused on research questions, and inductive (‘bottom-up’): it starts with observations, looks for patterns and builds ideas or theory from them
looks for precise, testable answers to specific questions (limits are set in advance) looks for rich, detailed knowledge of a topic area (no strict limits are set in advance)
focuses on cause and effect, with variables that are measured or manipulated focuses on experience: naturally occurring beliefs, behaviours and narratives
uses standardised, structured measures (e.g. questionnaires, assessments) uses flexible, often semi-structured, measures (e.g. interviews, focus groups, diaries)
is often quicker to collect and analyse, because methods are standardised and are not changed part-way through is iterative and ongoing, and often takes longer; the focus can shift as participants raise unexpected ideas
focuses on generalisation: does what we find in a sample apply to a wider population? does not usually focus on generalisation, because the context in which data are gathered matters (findings can still contribute to wider understanding)
uses large samples (a power analysis estimates the minimum number), with data typically presented at group level uses small samples, with data that typically includes individual quotes from individuals
is based on the belief that the researcher can aim for objectivity; the researcher’s values and experiences are seen as playing little or no part in the research process is based on the belief that the researcher’s subjective values and experiences are important; reflexivity is important and the researcher’s experiences are likely to influence the research process

This table describes general tendencies, not strict rules, and there can be exceptions to this.

Look at the table above and write down answers for the following questions:

  • What might a ‘typical’ quantitative study look like? What kind of data might be collected? What would be the aim of the study? What might your sample look like?
  • What might a ‘typical’ qualitative study look like? What kind of data might be collected? What would be the aim of the study? What might your sample look like?
  • What type of research question might be best answered with a quantitative design?
  • What type of research question might be best answered with a qualitative design?

1.2 Activity 2: Research designs quiz

Choose whether a quantitative or qualitative design is most appropriate for each of the following studies. Why did you choose each option?

  1. Angela is conducting a study exploring the experiences of people currently experiencing mental ill health. She is interested in a) better understanding what people with mental ill health experience day-to-day, and b) exploring the support mechanisms that are in place

This study is more likely to be:

This study would be best conducted as a qualitative study - the researcher is interested in exploring the experiences of people

  1. John is conducting a study where he is measuring whether the amount of sleep that children get is related to their cognitive performance in class. He asks the children to wear a sleep tracker to bed, so he can see when they are sleeping and when they are awake.

This study is more likely to be:

This study would best be conducted as a quantitative study - the data will be quantified in numbers

  1. Sally is conducting a study where she is interested in how children and their parents make sense of the violence they see on TV.

This study is more likely to be:

This study would best be conducted as a qualitative study – Sally is interested in how people understand and make sense of what they see (their beliefs and experiences), rather than in measuring a cause and its effect. The same topic could be studied quantitatively with a different research question. For example, if Sally asked whether the amount of violent TV that children watch predicts how aggressively they behave, she would be testing a relationship between measured variables, which is typical of quantitative research. The research question, not the topic, tells you which tool to pick.

  1. James is conducting a study where he wants to better understand motivations for smoking among teenagers.

This study is more likely to be:

This study would probably best be conducted as a qualitative study - the researcher is looking at the motivations of the participants. However, it could also possibly be a quantitative study, if the motivations are measured and quantified on a numeric scale instead of text data.

  1. Elaine is conducting a study exploring whether the amount of studying done in preparation for an exam predicts exam performance.

This study is more likely to be:

This study would be quantitative – Elaine is testing a specific, predefined question about the relationship between two measured variables (amount of studying and exam performance), and wants a precise, testable answer. Qualitative designs are not typically used to test relationships between measured variables.

1.3 Activity 3: Thinking about theory

In the mini-lecture on theoretical perspectives, we covered epistemology and ontology, as well as three types of knowledge that qualitative researchers can aim to produce (realist, phenomenological and social constructionist).

1.3.1 Part A: Two big questions

  • Epistemology asks: how, and what, can we know?
  • Ontology asks: what is there to know?

For each statement below, decide whether it is mainly about ontology (what there is to know), epistemology (how, and what, we can know), or both. Choose your answer first, then open the explanation.

  1. ‘There is one single reality, and it exists whether or not anyone studies it.’

This statement is mainly about:

Ontology. This is a claim about what exists and what reality is like. It is a realist position.

  1. ‘The researcher and the participants are connected, and the researcher’s values and experiences shape what the research finds.’

This statement is mainly about:

Epistemology. This is a claim about how knowledge is produced. It is the constructionist idea that ‘as we change, truth changes’. It links to reflexivity: if the researcher helps to shape the findings, they need to be open about their own values (we will cover this later in the course).

  1. ‘Reality depends on how people understand it, so there are multiple realities.’

This statement is mainly about:

Ontology. Again, this is a claim about what exists: here, that there is more than one reality. It is a relativist position.

  1. ‘There is a real world, but we can only ever know it partially, because our experiences and perspectives shape how we see it.’

This statement is mainly about:

Both. The first half is about what exists (a reality exists), which is ontology. The second half is about what we can know of it (only partially), which is epistemology. This is critical realism, which sits between realism and relativism

  1. ‘Researchers can produce objective knowledge by using observation, experiments and logic.’

This statement is mainly about:

Epistemology. This is a claim about how we can know, and what counts as knowledge. It is the positivist idea that ‘the truth is out there’ to be uncovered by the researcher.

1.3.2 Part B: One topic, three types of knowledge

Three researchers are all interested in homesickness among first-year international students. Each one wants to produce a different type of knowledge. Remember the three types and their images from the lecture:

  • Realist knowledge: the researcher as detective
  • Phenomenological knowledge: the researcher as person-centred counsellor
  • Social constructionist knowledge: the researcher as architect

Read each research question below. Which type of knowledge is it aiming to produce? Which words in the question gave you a clue?

  1. How is homesickness constructed in the way international students talk about missing home?

This research question aims to produce:

Social constructionist (the architect). The question is about how students talk, not about what homesickness ‘really’ is. It assumes that missing home could be described in many ways, and asks how one version is built and what it does. Clue: ‘constructed in the way … talk’.

  1. What processes do international students go through when they feel homesick during their first term?

This research question aims to produce:

Realist (the detective). The question assumes that homesickness is something real that happens to students regardless of the researcher’s or the participants’ views, and that the researcher can identify the processes involved by asking the right questions and treating accounts as reports of what happened. Clue: ‘what processes … go through’.”

  1. What is the lived experience of homesickness for international students in their first semester?

This research question aims to produce:

Phenomenological (the person-centred counsellor). The focus is on the participants’ own experience: how homesickness feels and what it means to them. The researcher is not trying to explain what mighty cause homesickness or determine whether homesickness is ‘real’. Clue: ‘lived experience’.

It is important to note that these wordings are to provide examples for you, but - in reality - they won’t fall so neatly into these categories. Real research questions are often less tidy, and real research will often sit between these types. However, hopefully this exercise allows you to see the differences between the knowledge that each approach aims to produce, and that this difference is mirrored in the way the RQs are phrased.